Tag Archives: Mysteries of History

Who Discovered Machu Picchu?

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Although constructed around 1450, the spectacular city of Machu Picchu remained unknown to the outside world until it was discovered by Hiram Bingham in 1911. But did he really discover Machu Picchu? Or did someone else beat him to it?

Hiram Bingham’s Expedition to Machu Picchu

Situated almost 8,000 feet above sea level, Machu Picchu towers over Peru’s Urubamba Valley. Its exact purpose remains unknown although modern researchers believe it was a royal estate for Pachacuti, the ninth Sapa Inca, or king, of the Kingdom of Cusco.

In 1911, historian/treasure hunter Hiram Bingham led the Yale Peruvian Expedition into the Andes. A few days later, on July 24, he “discovered” Machu Picchu thanks to a young local boy named Pablito Alvarez. At the time, other locals resided in the ruins. Bingham is rightly recognized as the explorer that brought world attention to Machu Picchu. But was he the first outsider to lay eyes on the ruins?

Other Claims to Machu Picchu’s “Discovery”?

As soon as Bingham’s discovery went public, other people came forward to dispute his claim. A missionary named Thomas Payne claimed to have found the ruins in 1906 with the help of Stuart McNairn. He even said that he told Bingham about Machu Picchu in the first place. Another early claimant was a German engineer named J.M. von Hassel.

More recently, Peruvian historians have gathered evidence pointing to a German adventurer named Augusto Berns. In the 1860’s, Berns purchased land near Machu Picchu and secured permission from Peru’s government to prospect it for gold and silver. In the process, he supposedly plundered a series of old Incan sites.

The question of who reached the site first is not just an academic one. The stakes are high and future revelations may impact the destination of 40,000 artifacts that currently reside at Yale University.

Who owns Yale’s Machu Picchu Artifacts?

An 1887 prospecting authorization given to Berns indicates that Peru held national sovereignty over the area prior to Bingham’s arrival. They are using this to help lay claim to Yale’s artifacts. Yale’s lawyers counter that if Berns reached the site first, it stands to reason that he removed the most important artifacts. Thus, they don’t feel that the artifacts in their possession are unique or important enough to require their return to Peru. Adding to the drama, property records show that local families owned Machu Picchu before Bingham arrived. Their descendants are seeking compensation for loss of property.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

I’d be surprised if Bingham was the first outsider to ever set eyes upon Machu Picchu. But as far as I can tell, there is no solid evidence to support any of the other claims. New evidence will continue to emerge however, so anything is possible. But regardless, Hiram Bingham will always be remembered as the man who shone public light on the fabulous ruins known as Machu Picchu.

“In the variety of its charms and the power of its spell, I know of no place in the world which can compare with it. Not only has it great snow peaks looming above the clouds more than two miles overhead, gigantic precipices of many-colored granite rising sheer for thousands of feet above the foaming, glistening, roaring rapids; it has also, in striking contrast, orchids and tree ferns, the delectable beauty of luxurious vegetation, and the mysterious witchery of the jungle.” ~ Hiram Bingham, 1922

Where is the Valhalla Sea Serpent?

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In 1905, Edmund Meade-Waldo and Michael Nicoll spotted a sea serpent off the coast of Brazil. What makes this encounter unique amongst sea monster sightings was that both men were trained, respected zoologists. So, what did they see?  And is it possible that the Valhalla sea serpent actually exists?

The Valhalla Sea Serpent?

At approximately 10:00 AM on December 7, 1905, Edmund Meade-Waldo and Michael Nicoll were conducting a scientific expedition aboard the Valhalla, fourteen miles off of Brazil’s northeast coast. Both men were Fellows of the Zoological Society of London, with particular expertise in the field of birds.

I saw a large fin or frill sticking out of the water, dark seaweed-brown in color, somewhat crinkled at the edge. It was apparently about 6 feet in length, and projected from 18 inches to 2 feet from the water. – Edmund Meade-Waldo

Meade-Waldo went on to report that the creature’s head and neck rose seven or eight feet out of the water. Its head “had a very turtle-like appearance” and along with its neck, was colored dark brown on top and white towards the bottom. Nicoll added that the neck was about six feet long and wriggled as it moved. He saw a large brownish-black patch beneath the surface of the water, but was unable to distinguish its shape. The fin, he thought, looked like a large piece of ribbon seaweed. A few years later, Nicoll reported in his book, Three Voyages of a Naturalist, that “this creature was an example, I consider, of what has been so often reported, for want of a better name, as the ‘great sea serpent’.”

But was the Valhalla Sea Serpent really a Sea Serpent?

A few minutes later, the Valhalla sea serpent was gone. Interestingly enough, Nicoll was convinced that the so-called Valhalla sea serpent wasn’t a serpent at all, but a a mammal. The Valhalla incident is, along with the Daedalus sea serpent incident, one of the most credible accounts in history of a “sea serpent.” And indeed, Meade-Waldo later commented that the creature he saw “might easily be the same.”

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

To my knowledge, no one has ever called their observations into question. While the evidence is meager and incomplete, it is also difficult to refute. If these two respected zoologists were correct in their observations, its entirely possible that the world’s oceans hold at least one more mammoth creature waiting to be discovered.

The Strange Case of President Zachary Taylor

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Zachary Taylor is not exactly a household name.  He served as President of the United States for just sixteen months, from March 4, 1849 to July 9, 1850.  He is best known for his service as a former general in the Mexican-American War as well as his rather long nickname (“Old Rough and Ready”).  So, why does he matter today?  Because 161 years after he died, rumors persist that his death was no accident.  In fact, many believe that President Zachary Taylor was assassinated.

The Odd Death of Zachary Taylor

On July 4, 1850, President Taylor became overheated.  To alleviate his symptoms, he drank a pitcher of milk and ate both a bowl of cherries and several pickles.  Five days later, he died.  Almost immediately, rumors spread that he’d been poisoned.  However, for more than a century, historians blamed various ailments for his passing, including cholera, typhoid fever, and food poisoning.  Then, in the late 1980s, an author by the name of Professor Clara Rising decided to challenge established history.

The (Flawed) Exhumation?

Professor Rising theorized that unknown persons assassinated President Taylor via poison, specifically arsenic.  She convinced his distant relatives to exhume the body.  On June 17, 1991, his lead coffin was removed from the ground.  Soon after, Dr. George Nichols and Dr. William Maples discovered that Taylor’s remains were in remarkably good shape.  They proceeded to gather tissue samples.  Initial tests showed relatively high arsenic levels.  However, they were proclaimed too low to indicate a deliberate poisoning.

But the rumors didn’t end.  In 1999, Michael Parenti revisited the arsenic theory in his book History as Mystery and reported numerous flaws in the autopsy.  He also provided a convincing mass of circumstantial evidence that pointed to a poisoning.  For example, Zachary Taylor’s hair showed a suspicious amount of antimony, which is poisonous.  Also, the amount of arsenic revealed in a sectional analysis of his hair was similar to that of other poison victims.  And that’s just the tip of the iceberg.

Why would anyone assassinate Zachary Taylor?

One possible motive for assassination was the issue of slavery.  Although he owned slaves, President Taylor was considered a moderate on the issue.  As such, he didn’t support the Compromise of 1850, which required the return of runaway slaves.  Henry Clay, the bill’s author, attacked Taylor within the Senate.  Threats of secession rang out across the nation.  In response, Zachary Taylor threatened military action against the “traitors”.  Civil war seemed like a near certainty.  But President Taylor’s death paved the way for a temporary peace.  Also, it enabled Millard Fillmore, a known supporter of the Compromise, to take office.  Fillmore later passed a revised version of the Act.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

President Taylor doesn’t seem all that important today.  However, if it weren’t for that fateful July 4, the name Zachary Taylor might have been etched indelibly into Civil War history, rather than that of Abraham Lincoln.  Evidence for an assassination is credible.  Also, numerous pro-slavery advocates, including many powerful ones, had strong motives to kill President Taylor.  Historical detectives need to revisit this case.  When they do, it’s quite possible that they’ll find that the first assassination in American history wasn’t of Abraham Lincoln but rather, of a little-known military hero named Zachary Taylor.

Death in the Arctic…by Balloon?

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In 1897, Salomon August Andrée concocted a daring plan to become the first man to reach the North Pole. Along with two other men, he climbed into a giant hydrogen balloon and set sail from Sweden. But unfortunately, they never reached their destination. What happened to the lost SA Andree expedition?

The SA Andree Arctic Balloon Expedition

In the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, countries around the world competed against each other to be the first to reach the North Pole. In many ways, their efforts were similar to those that surrounded the moon landing race of the 1960’s.

At that time, Sweden was a virtual unknown in the world of polar exploration. So, when SA Andrée began fundraising for an expedition to the North Pole, he found an eager audience. His plan was to fly a balloon across the Arctic Sea. On the way, he hoped to pass near to or directly over the North Pole. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences agreed to fund the entirety of his expedition. Luminaries such as King Oscar II and Alfred Nobel also donated to the cause.

SA Andree’s Expedition Vanishes?

On July 11, 1897, SA Andree launched his balloon. Accompanying him were Nils Strindberg, a physicist, chemist, and photographer, along with an engineer named Knut Frænkel. For a short while, nothing was heard from the expedition. Then, a pigeon was shot as it landed on a Norwegian steamer. Upon closer inspection, a message was discovered.

“The Andree Polar Expedition to the ‘Aftonbladet’, Stockholm. July 13 12.30pm, 82 deg. north latitude, 15 deg.5 min. east longitude. Good journey eastwards, 10 deg. south. All goes well on board. This is the third message sent by pigeon. Andrée.”

This message represented Andrée’s final communication. The expedition’s disappearance became an enduring mystery that wasn’t solved for another three decades.

Discovery of SA Andree’s Lost Expedition?

On August 5, 1930, the crew of the Norwegian vessel Bratvaag landed on Kvitøya, a normally inaccessible island in the Arctic Ocean. They quickly discovered Andrée’s and Strindberg’s skeletons, along with a boat, equipment, and a journal. A later expedition uncovered Frænkel’s remains along with photographic film, a logbook, and maps.

The film and journals told a horrifying tale. The balloon lost hydrogen quickly and crashed after just two days. The men spent the next three months attempting to work their way south, fighting inadequate clothing, poor provisions, and difficult currents. Eventually, they camped on a large ice floe and allowed it to carry them south. However, the floe broke up as it bumped into Kvitøya, forcing the three men to move their camp to the island itself. At that point, Andrée’s diary entries grew increasingly erratic and its assumed that he along with his companions died a short while later.

What killed off the SA Andree Expedition?

Although the bodies were recovered, the mystery of what actually killed the explorers remains unsolved. In his book, De döda på Vitön, Ernst Tryde suggested that the men ate undercooked polar bear meat, causing them to expire from trichinosis. Others point to vitamin A poisoning, carbon monoxide poisoning, lead poisoning, scurvy, botulism, suicide, polar bear attack, hypothermia, and/or general malaise. The most recent work on the subject, performed by Bea Uusma Schyffert, indicates that at least Strindberg died from a polar bear attack.

“Posterity has expressed surprise that they died on Kvitøya, surrounded by food. The surprise is rather that they found the strength to live so long.” ~ Rolf Kjellström

The expedition was ill-fated from the beginning. There were plenty of danger signs even before the launch, all of which were ignored or even covered up by Andrée. In many ways, Andrée appears to be a victim of his own success. His fundraising campaign created tremendous publicity and media pressure. With such expectations, its possible that Andrée felt like he had no other choice but to follow through with his original, poorly-conceived plan. He paid the ultimate price for doing so, as did Nils Strindberg and Knut Frænkel.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

Although the expedition was foolhardy in retrospect, it deserves to be remembered for another reason. Armed with little more than their own ingenuity, Andrée, Strindberg, and Frænkel managed to survive an astonishing three months in some of the toughest terrain known to mankind. Working together, they successfully steered a course south and if it hadn’t been for a run of bad luck, might’ve made it to safety. Yes, their story is one of tragedy. But its also one of inspiration and of perseverance.

Secrets of the Moon?

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The moon is more than just a celestial body. Its also the source of unanswered questions, speculation, and mystery. One particularly strange mystery involves the vast geographical differences between it’s near side and its far side. Why are these two sides so different from each other?

The Moon: Near Side vs. Far Side

The moon doesn’t rotate. Thus, the near side is always visible from earth while the far side remains shrouded in darkness. But the differences don’t end there. The near side exhibits few mountains and a thin crust. Large rocky plains account for 31.2% of its surface. The far side, in contrast, is marked by mountain ranges measuring over 3,000 feet high and a thick crust. It’s heavily cratered and flat plains account for just 2.5% of its surface.

Secrets of the Moon?

Now, two scholars, planetary scientist Erik Asphaug and his postdoctoral researcher Martin Jutzi, believe they can explain these differences. They recently proposed that the reason the two sides look so different is because they are different. In other words, they think that the moon is, in actuality, two separate celestial bodies!

Using sophisticated computer models, they have shown that it might’ve been formed four billion years ago by a relatively low-speed collision of two separate moons. Their model assumes that the smaller moon smashed into the larger one at about 4,400 miles per hour. At this speed, material from the smaller moon would’ve splattered all over the larger one, creating a thicker crust, a battered surface, and long mountain ranges.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

The theory doesn’t explain everything. For example, the model assumes that the two moons consisted of the same material. However, the far side of the moon contains heavy concentrations of aluminum, a material that is only found in low quantities on the near side.

Further mineral studies are needed. And fortunately, they’re coming. On September 8, 2011, NASA plans to launch the GRAIL, or Gravity Recovery Interior Laboratory, mission. Two spaceships will fly circular orbits thirty-one miles above the moon’s surface. Using gravity mapping techniques, NASA hopes to determine the moon’s interior structure. That data should help us answer numerous questions about the moon such as, has earth always had just one moon? Or, many centuries ago, did two moons float above our planet?

The Lost Fleet of Captain Morgan?

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Captain Henry Morgan was one of the most successful privateers of all time. In 1671, while conducting a shocking raid on Panama City, he lost five ships to the raging waters of the Caribbean.  Now, divers believe that they have located this lost fleet. Just who was Captain Morgan? And how did his raid single-handedly change the world?

Who was Captain Henry Morgan?

Henry Morgan was born in Wales in 1635. While early accounts of his life are conflicting, we do know that he was commanding his own ship by the age of 30. Soon after, he took on the role of privateer, or a government-sanctioned pirate, similar to the infamous Captain Kidd. Outfitted with letters of marque from Britain, he began a series of daring raids that rocked Spain’s tenuous grip on the New World.

Captain Henry Morgan invades Panama?

In late 1670, Captain Henry Morgan assembled a mighty fleet of thirty-six ships and some 2,000 men and turned his sights towards Panama City. At that time, Panama City was the richest city in the Americas, thanks to seemingly endless loads of Inca gold appropriated by the Spanish conquistadors. It was also considered invincible, thanks to heavy fortifications facing the Pacific Ocean and miles of thick jungle separating it from the Caribbean Sea. Undeterred, Henry Morgan sailed to the Chagres River and captured Castillo de San Lorenzo. In the process, he lost five vessels, including his flagship, which underwater archaeologists believe they have now located.

Afterwards, Captain Morgan divided his 1,400 remaining men and marched through the Panama Isthmus. He caught the Spanish defenders by surprise, outflanked their counterattack, and seized the city. He spent several weeks in Panama and eventually left with 175 mules loaded with gold, silver, and jewelry. The haul was relatively light due to the fact that a few treasure-laden Spanish vessels managed to flee the harbor. However, since Henry Morgan paid his men just ten pounds apiece for their help in the raid, many researchers speculate that he took the rest of the treasure for himself and hid it before returning to Jamaica.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

According to Stephan Talty’s excellent book, Empire of Blue Water: Captain Morgan’s Great Pirate Army, the Epic Battle for the Americas, and the Catastrophe That Ended the Outlaws’ Bloody Reign, Captain Henry Morgan’s raid on Panama City led to more than a possible lost treasure. It also changed the course of history, helping to bring about the end of the Spanish Empire and the “Old World”, which had been driven by religion, laws, and birthrights. The British Empire and a “New World”, driven by money, free trade, and democracy, would rise in its wake. In that respect, Captain Morgan remains one of the least known, yet most influential people in modern history.

“Morgan had helped, in his own way, point a path toward the future. Some historians have even argued that without Morgan the Spanish would have been able to settle and defend Florida more vigorously and even extend their control along the Gulf Coast, creating an impregnable empire stretching to Texas. Without him, who knows what the map of the Caribbean and even of the United States might look like. He battled a divine empire on behalf of men interested in trade and gold and rational society (but certainly not freedom for every member, as the pirates had insisted on). The next great world empire, the British, would be a mercantile, not a religious, one. The world had turned Morgan’s way, and he’d nudged it along.” ~ Stephan Talty, Empire of Blue Water

How was the Great Pyramid built?

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The Great Pyramid at Giza is one of the most spectacular monuments of the ancient world. It measures over 450 feet tall and over 750 feet on each side. Many mysteries surround the giant structure but one in particular stands above the rest. How in the world did the ancient Egyptians manage to build it?

How did Ancient Egyptians build the Great Pyramid?

The problem is not an easy one. As one scholar put it:

“The logistics of construction at the Giza site are staggering when you think that the ancient Egyptians had no pulleys, no wheels, and no iron tools. Yet, the dimensions of the pyramid are extremely accurate and the site was leveled within a fraction of an inch over the entire 13.1-acre base. This is comparable to the accuracy possible with modern construction methods and laser leveling. That’s astounding. With their ‘rudimentary tools,’ the pyramid builders of ancient Egypt were about as accurate as we are today with 20th century technology.” ~ Dr. Craig Smith

Ancient texts provide us with some clues. Herodotus wrote that wooden machines or levers were utilized to build the Great Pyramid while Diodorus Siculus theorized that ramps were used. In more modern times, scholars have added a number of theories to the debate. However, none of these seem to fit the facts.

  • Single Ramp: A single ramp would need to rise and lengthen as the Great Pyramid grew taller. In order to maintain a manageable slope for workers hauling the massive blocks, it would eventually be over a mile long. There is no room for such a ramp in the area nor evidence that one ever existed.
  • Spiral Ramp: A ramp that spiraled upwards around the Great Pyramid’s exterior would create an engineering problem. As the pyramid rose, the ramp would need to edge inwards, completely covering the lower half of the structure. This would make it impossible for surveyors to build the pyramid with much accuracy.
  • Herodotus’s Machines: An army of wooden crane-like machines required wood that the Egyptians didn’t possess. Also, cranes would be needed on all steps of the Great Pyramid yet many of the steps are too thin to support such machines.
  • Concrete Blocks: Even if the ancient Egyptians used limestone concrete for some of the blocks, they couldn’t have used it for all of them. For instance, the giant multi-ton stones above the King’s Chamber were definitely carved and hauled.

Where is the Ramp used to build the Great Pyramid?

In 2007, a French architect by the name of Jean-Pierre Houdin used 3-D software to propose a new type of ramp. If he’s right, this ramp should still exist…inside the Great Pyramid itself!

His theory is that a single external ramp was used to build the bottom third of the pyramid. At the same time, a second spiraling ramp was constructed inside the structure. After the external ramp had served its purpose, it was broken down into blocks and hauled up the internal ramp in order to build the top two-thirds of the pyramid. Within the Great Pyramid, the ramp’s turning points were left open temporarily so that a wooden crane could lift and rotate each block, allowing them to be hauled up to the next turning point.

Houdin’s theory is admittedly complicated. Yet, it’s backed by intriguing evidence. First, there is a notch in the pyramid that matches up with one of his predicted turning points. In 1986, a French archaeologist spotted a desert fox enter the Great Pyramid near this notch. While the fox could’ve climbed the massive structure, its also possible that it entered an undiscovered crevice at the bottom, climbed the internal ramp, and then exited near the notch. And second, that same French expedition used microgravity to search for hidden chambers. While they found nothing substantial, their work revealed something inside the pyramid that looked like a spiraling ramp.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

Houdin wishes to test his theory by using special infrared cameras to measure the pyramid’s reaction to heat. However, he first needs permission from Egyptian authorities, something that has eluded his grasp for several years. Along with the Great Pyramid’s secret shafts, its construction remains one of the greatest mysteries of the ancient world. With any luck, both secrets will soon be solved.

Secrets of the Oracle at Delphi?

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For over 1,000 years, the Oracle at Delphi was the most powerful person in the ancient world. Visitors from all walks of life traveled many miles to seek her prophecies on politics, economics, and religion amongst other things. Was the Oracle nothing more than an ancient sham that managed to fool some of history’s finest minds? Or maybe, just maybe, was there something real behind her mysterious prophecies?

What was the Oracle at Delphi?

The true history of the Oracle at Delphi is buried under layers of myth. Supposedly, the Temple at which the Oracle resided was created by the earth-goddess Gaia and subsequently handed over to Themis and then Phoebe. Poseidon later occupied the space, followed by Apollo. Peeling back the mythology, we have reason to believe that the Delphic Oracle was firmly established on Mount Parnassus sometime around 800 BC.

At the height of its fame, three separate Pythias, or priestesses, took turns serving as the Oracle. They made prophecies from inside a small underground chamber located within the Temple of Apollo. The exact process for consulting the Oracle is unknown. However, we do know that it was available to anyone, be it king or ordinary citizen (although it’s believed that wealthy individuals paid great sums to cut the line).

Prophecies of the Oracle at Delphi?

The Oracle answered questions while sitting on a three-legged stool within the interior chamber. Surviving accounts indicate that she would enter a trance-like state, complete with occasional writhing and foaming at the mouth. Then, she would reveal her prophecies, often in a strange voice. Some historians believe that she spoke gibberish which was then translated into statements by the priests who managed the Temple. Others think that she spoke normally and that the priests merely recorded her words. Regardless, many of the Oracle’s prophecies seemed to come true, albeit with some interpretation. Two of the many famous prophecies from the Oracle at Delphi include:

  • 403 BC: “Also the dragon (serpent), earthborn, in craftiness coming behind thee.” – This warning was given to the Spartan General, Lysander. Eight years later, he was killed from behind by Neachorus, who carried a shield adorned with a serpent.
  • 67 AD: “Your presence here outrages the god you seek. Go back, matricide! The number 73 marks the hour of your downfall!” This was related to Emperor Nero, who had killed his mother eight years earlier. Within a year, his reign ended after a revolt led by Galba…who was 73 years old at the time.

The Strange Vapor of the Oracle at Delphi?

So, where did this prophetic power come from? Some clues can be found in ancient texts. According to Plutarch, a one-time priest at the Temple of Apollo, the Oracle’s chamber was often filled with a sweet-smelling vapor.

For the room where those do wait who come for answers from the oracle is sometimes — though not often and at certain stated times, but as it were by chance — filled with such a fragrant odor and scent, that no perfumes in the world can exceed it, and this arises, as it were, out of a spring, from the sanctuary of the temple.” ~ Plutarch, Moralia, Volume 4

However, the initial excavation of the site in 1892 did not reveal a stream or anything else capable of producing vapor. And for many decades, historians believed that Plutarch was simply incorrect. That all changed in 1996 when archaeologist John Hale launched a ground-breaking expedition to investigate the Oracle at Delphi. With the help of a geologist, forensic chemist, and a toxicologist, he re-examined the landscape and arrived at some startling conclusions.

It turns out that the ancient city of Delphi was built on top of limestone, twenty percent of which was bituminous. Two subterranean faults intersected directly beneath the Temple. Hale’s team proposed that these faults, which lie in one of the most geologically active places on earth, shifted periodically in the past. The resulting friction heated petrochemicals within the limestone. They vaporized and then rose to the air through small fissures in the rock. This vapor seeped into the Oracle’s small chamber, causing general intoxication.

The team also discovered a natural spring uphill from the Temple. It contained ethylene, which is a sweet-smelling gas. At low levels, it can induce a trance-like state. At higher levels, it can cause convulsions or even unconsciousness. In other words, gases emitted from the ground could’ve caused the Oracle to experience an altered state, which to the ancients, might’ve seemed like a divine connection with Apollo.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

The work done by John Hale and his team of experts is nothing short of astounding. From where I stand, they appear to have solved many of the mysteries associated with the Oracle. Incidentally, I wish we saw more of this sort of multidisciplinary approach to archaeology. I can’t help but think that it would provide a far richer understanding of excavation sites.

As with all things, the Oracle at Delphi eventually declined in importance. Some attribute this to a lack of earthquakes over a significant period of time, which caused the vapor to cease. Regardless, for several centuries the women who donned the Oracle mantle wielded an immense amount of power. Their vapor-fueled prophecies guided the actions of the mighty and the meek alike. One can easily make the case that the Oracles at Delphi were some of the most influential people of their era, if not of all time.

What Killed off the Neanderthal’s?

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Some 30,000 years ago, the Neanderthal’s vanished from the earth. The cause of their extinction has long been a source of debate. Now, a team of academics believes that they have the answer. So, what’s the story? What killed off the Neanderthal’s?

Who were the Neanderthals?

The Neanderthal was a man-like species that once lived in Europe and parts of Asia. They are believed to have originated some 350,000-600,000 years ago. Modern scientists are locked in a debate about whether to categorize them as a subspecies (or race) of humans or a separate human species altogether. Regardless, compared to anatomically modern humans, Neanderthal’s were probably more robust, stronger, and exhibited a higher degree of facial sloping.

What happened to the Neanderthals?

Scientists have proposed numerous theories to account for their unexplained extinction. As you will see below, most of these theories are based around a sudden influx of competitors…namely modern man.

  • Genocide: Anatomically modern humans are believed to have evolved from an archaic human species some 200,000 years ago. As these early humans drifted out of Africa, they might have engaged the indigenous Neanderthal’s in war and killed them off.
  • Disease: Similar to the above except with pathogens as the agent of death. Humans might have accidentally infected Neanderthal populations with one or more diseases which proceeded to wipe them out.
  • Lack of Competitive Advantage: Humans may have held some kind of competitive advantage that enabled them to outlive the Neanderthal’s. Possibilities include technology or anatomical differences that made it more difficult for the Neanderthal’s to run and caused them to burn far more energy while doing so.
  • Interbreeding: Neanderthal’s might have bred with early humans, causing them to be completely absorbed into the Cro-Magnon population. This theory is backed to some degree by genetic studies and skeletal analysis.
  • Lack of Specialty: Neanderthal men and women may have both focused on hunting big game. With no one gathering plants or performing other home-based activities, they wouldn’t have been able to make full use of their environment.
  • Climate Change: The arrival of an Ice Age reduced plant growth in Europe. The Neanderthal’s might have been unable to adapt to the corresponding decline in plant-eating animals.

A New Theory?

A few days ago, Sir Paul Mellars, Professor Emeritus of Prehistory and Human Evolution at Cambridge University, and his student Jennifer French announced new findings that may help explain why the European-based Neanderthal’s went extinct. Their research at Périgord, France shows that a great mass of African-based humans swarmed western Europe about 40,000 years ago. Outnumbered ten to one, the Neanderthal’s were forced to compete heavily for resources against a human population that was, in all likelihood, technologically superior.

“Faced with this kind of competition, the Neanderthals seem to have retreated initially into more marginal and less attractive regions of the continent and eventually, within a space of at most a hundred thousand years, for their populations to have declined to extinction – perhaps accelerated further by sudden climatic deterioration across the continent around 40,000 years ago.” ~ Professor Sir Paul Mellars

In addition, Professor Mellars believes that interbreeding, a theory favored by many scientists, had less impact than is generally accepted.

“There’s some evidence that Neanderthals and modern humans interbred, but that most likely happened 100,000 years ago, probably in the Near East. Modern humans swept into Europe much later – about 40,000 years ago – and there’s no evidence for interbreeding then.” ~ Professor Sir Paul Mellars

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

I have no doubt that other scientists and archaeologists will soon step forward, providing fresh challenges to Professor Mellars’ theory. Still, it seems probable that increased competition helped kill off the Neanderthal’s. But are they really extinct? Modern research shows that the average person living outside of Africa carries Neanderthal genetic material in the range of one to four percent. Thus, while the Neanderthal’s are no longer around, their legacy continues to live on inside many of us, a small but enduring reminder of the long and twisting path of modern man.

Who is D.B. Cooper?

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In 1971, Dan Cooper skyjacked a Boeing 727. After pocketing $200,000 in ransom money, he parachuted into the night, never to be seen again. Now, almost forty years later, the FBI has announced a breakthrough in the case. Is the truth behind D.B. Cooper finally at hand?

D.B. Cooper hijacks Flight 305 

On the afternoon of November 24, 1971, a man calling himself Dan Cooper purchased a one-way ticket on Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 305, a thirty-minute trip from Portland, Oregon to Seattle Washington. After takeoff, he passed a note to a flight attendant named Florence Schaffner. Although he later took the note with him, she later recalled that it said, “I have a bomb in my briefcase. I will use it if necessary. I want you to sit next to me. You are being hijacked.” D.B. Cooper showed her the bomb, which she described as eight red sticks, wire, insulation, and a battery. Then, he proceeded to make his demands:

“I want $200,000 in unmarked 20-dollar bills. I want two back parachutes and two front parachutes. When we land, I want a fuel truck ready to refuel. No funny stuff or I’ll do the job.” ~ Dan Cooper

It seemed clear that D.B. Cooper intended to jump from the plane with a hostage. Donald Nyrop, the President of Northwest Orient, agreed to meet the demands. Upon landing in Seattle, the FBI provided Cooper with the money and four civilian parachutes. In exchange, Cooper released Florence, another flight attendant, and all thirty-six passengers. After refueling, the plane lifted into the air again, on course for Reno, Nevada.

D.B. Cooper Parachutes into History…and Mystery

After takeoff, D.B. Cooper ordered the remaining crew to gather in the cockpit. Around 8:00pm, the crew noticed a flashing warning light, indicating that a passenger staircase in the rear of the aircraft had been deployed. At 8:13pm, the plane jolted. Two hours later, the crew landed in Reno, with the airstair still open. Cooper was nowhere to be found.

Two of the parachutes remained onboard and it quickly became apparent that D.B. Cooper had jumped out of the airplane with the other two, most likely somewhere over Washington’s lower Cascade mountains. The FBI swarmed the plane, gathering additional evidence such as 66 partial fingerprints, a black clip-on tie, and a mother of pearl tie clip.

Using available data, the FBI determined his likely landing area and initiated a manhunt. They also distributed a list of serial numbers corresponding to the ransom money to law enforcement agencies, financial institutions, casinos, racetracks, and other places.  But the investigation failed to unearth any evidence.

What happened to D.B. Cooper?

In February 1980, eight-year old Brian Ingram found three packets of waterlogged bills on the banks of the Columbia River. The money, which totaled $5,800, matched the serial numbers of bills given to D.B. Cooper. The FBI relaunched its investigation. However, they failed to determine how the bills arrived at the location. To this day, the money as well as an instruction placard found in 1978 remain the only pieces of hard evidence found outside the aircraft that can be tied directly to D.B. Cooper.

No one is quite sure what happened to Cooper and the ransom money. Many people believe that he died during his parachute attempt. He wasn’t an experienced jumper, evidenced by the fact that he chose to take flight with a dummy chute used for training exercises that had been purposely planted by the FBI. Also, his jump took place at 10,000 feet in the middle of a raging storm complete with powerful winds, freezing rain, and below-zero temperatures. Under those conditions, he needed to land safely in extremely difficult terrain, something that would be challenging even for an experienced jumper.

Other people believe that he survived the jump and proceeded to live a long life. They point to literally dozens of serious and semi-serious suspects, each one backed by considerable circumstantial evidence. Perhaps the most popular suspect is Kenneth Christiansen. However, a lack of hard evidence makes it difficult to be sure.

Now, investigators hope to finally settle the debate. A few days ago, the FBI made a series of startling announcements pertaining to the D.B. Cooper investigation.

“We do actually have a new suspect we’re looking at…It comes from a credible lead who came to our attention recently via a law enforcement colleague…The credible lead is somebody whose possible connection to the hijacker is strong…And the suspect is not a name that’s come up before.” ~ Ayn Dietrich, FBI Spokeswoman

Ayn also mentioned that the FBI is attempting to compare fingerprints and DNA from the suspect to those found on items recovered from the airplane. She even went so far as to call the lead the “most promising one to date.”

The FBI will face significant hurdles if it wants to prove the identity of D.B. Cooper. Apparently, it is uncertain if the fingerprints recovered from the plane actually belonged to Cooper in the first place. Also, the FBI appears to have misplaced cigarette butts belonging to Cooper, which could dash any hopes for a DNA test.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

Forty years have passed since Dan Cooper vanished into the night. His case is shrouded in mystery and mythology. Even his name remains a source of confusion to the general public. Due to a media miscommunication, he is commonly known as D.B. Cooper when in fact, he never used the initials D.B. at all.

Will this latest suspect and supporting evidence be enough to put the case to rest? I have to admit I’m skeptical. Over 1,000 people have been suspected of being D.B. Cooper. And every few years, a new piece of explosive evidence emerges only to be ruled out. There was that misidentified skull in 1981, that tattered parachute in 1988, and that other tattered parachute in 2008. But all the same, I’ll be following this story closely. The unmasking of D.B. Cooper would close America’s last unsolved skyjacking and finally, bring an answer to a case that has baffled hundreds of thousands of people for over forty years.