Tag Archives: Ancient Egypt

Egypt’s Ancient Astronomers?

Posted on by

Algol, also known as the Demon Star, is a binary system, meaning it contains two stars rotating around each other. Until recently, it was believed this unique feature was discovered by John Goodricke in 1783. Now, we have reason to believe it was detected thousands of years earlier. Did ancient Egyptian astronomers discover and understand Algol?

Algol and the Mysterious Cairo Calendar?

In 1200 BC, ancient Egyptian astronomers created a document now known as the Cairo Calendar. They used it to record observations about the sky. Recently, a team of scholars from the University of Helsinki took a closer look at this calendar. In doing so, they discovered the ancient Egyptians weren’t just recording changes in the sky. They were attempting to understand and calculate how the stars worked.

The Cairo Calendar charts at least two specific cycles. One cycle lasts 29.6 days, roughly the same amount of time as the lunar cycle. The other cycle lasts 2.85 days and appears to match the activity of Algol. Currently, Algol dims every 2.867 days, most likely because its stars rotate and block each other’s light.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

But what about that small difference between the two numbers? One possibility is the ancient Egyptians simply made slight errors in their calculations. However, there’s also an intriguing alternative theory. It’s possible Algol’s rotation has slowed over time. If this is the case, it would add evidence to a recent theory that Algol is actually a three-star system.

Interesting huh? Of course, it’s impossible to say for certain, not without a better understanding of how the ancient Egyptians recorded the cycles. Still, at least for the moment, it seems possible that the work of these ancient Egyptian astronomers has shed new light on one of the night sky’s most perplexing puzzles.

The Book of the Dead?

Posted on by

The Book of the Dead refers to a type of ancient Egyptian funerary text, first used around 1550 BC. Its purpose was to help the dead navigate the dangerous path to the afterlife. For many years, historians have searched the globe for pages from the most famous Book of the Dead. It belonged to Amenhotep, the Chief Builder of the Temple of Amun. However, those efforts have been thwarted…until now.

The Book of the Dead?

Recently, Dr. John Taylor of the British Museum discovered the missing papyrus pages in Queensland Museum. Here’s more from The Daily Mail:

The last missing pages from a supposedly ‘magical’ Book of the Dead from an Egyptian priest, Amenhotep, have been found after a century-long search – in a museum in Queensland.

British Museum Egyptologist Dr John Taylor said he was ‘floored’ by the discovery of the 100 fragments.

It’s the end of a worldwide search by archaeologists for the papyrus scroll – which supposedly contains spells to guide spirits into the afterlife.

Ms Bates said British Museum Curator and world renowned Egyptologist Dr John Taylor had stumbled across a section of the manuscript as part of a Queensland Museum display.

‘After spotting the piece Dr Taylor was shown the other 100 plus fragments held in the Museum’s stores and was floored by what he had uncovered,’ Ms Bates said.

‘These unsuspecting papyrus pieces form the missing part of a highly historically valuable ‘Book of the Dead’ that belonged to the Chief Builder of the temple of Amun, Amenhotep.

‘Sections of this precious manuscript have laid scattered across the globe for a hundred years with some of the pieces held safely in the collections of British Museum, Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art (MET), New York…

(See The Daily Mail for the rest)

Massive Animal Sacrifices…in Ancient Egypt?

Posted on by

The ancient Egyptians were crazy about animals…or at least, animal sacrifices.

Animal Mummies & Animal Sacrifices?

In ancient Egypt, a whole breeding industry existed just to provide citizens with the requisite number of sacrificial victims. Some animals, like the sacred ibis and the baboon, were possibly even driven to regional extinction by this frenzied activity, leading to the rise of a false mummy market. Here’s more on the ancient animal sacrifice market from Discovery News:

Millions of animals were‭ ‬ritually slaughtered in ancient Egypt to foster a huge mummification industry that even drove some species extinct.‭

As an exhibition‭ ‬at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. shows,‭ ‬almost no animals escaped the carnage.

Although ‬pets died of natural causes before their mummification,‭ and sacred beasts were pampered by adoring priests, most‬ animals in ancient Egypt had miserable, short lives. Many ‬were simply bred to become votive mummies — offered to the gods in the same way that people light up candles in churches today…

(See Discovery News for the rest)

Egyptian Heritage Under Attack?

Posted on by

On Sunday, a fiery inferno claimed Egyptian maps and historical manuscripts, some of which were over 200 years old. Is Egypt’s heritage under attack? How can ancient books be protected?

Ancient Books: How can Scholars Protect Egyptian Heritage?

The Cairo-based fire was seemingly part of the anti-government protests which currently engulf the nation. And now, there is some talk of “foreign entities” (most likely UNESCO) taking sovereignty over historic Egyptian sites for preservation purposes. Fortunately, much of these ancient books and other works had been digitized. Incidentally, this is one of the reasons I support the digitization of ancient books and rare historical documents such as Sir Isaac Newton’s papers. Eventually, all ancient books, maps, and other documents will succumb to the ravages of time and violence. A digital copy might not be as good as the real item…but it’s the next best thing and it can be stored in many places. Anyway, here’s more on the story from the Guardian:

Volunteers in white lab coats, surgical gloves and masks stood on the back of a pickup truck along the banks of the Nile in Cairo, rummaging through stacks of rare 200-year-old manuscripts that were little more than charcoal debris.

The volunteers, ranging from academic experts to appalled citizens, have spent the past two days trying to salvage what’s left of some 192,000 books, journals and writings, casualties of Egypt’s latest bout of violence.

The Institute of Egypt, a research centre set up by Napoleon Bonaparte during France’s invasion in the late 18th century, caught fire during clashes between protesters and Egypt’s military over the weekend. It was home to a treasure trove of writings, most notably the handwritten 24-volume Description de l’Egypte, which began during the 1798-1801 French occupation. It includes 20 years of observations by more than 150 French scholars and scientists, was one of the most comprehensive descriptions of Egypt’s monuments, its ancient civilisation and contemporary life at the time.

It is probably now burned beyond repair…

(See Cairo Institute Burned During Clashes for the rest)

The Riddle of the Sphinx

Posted on by

A sphinx is a mythical creature with the body of a lion and the head of a human. According to the ancient Greeks, any traveler who wished to enter Thebes had to first solve “The Riddle of the Sphinx.” Those who failed to answer it correctly were strangled and eaten. What was the riddle? And who finally bested the Sphinx?

The Riddle of the Sphinx?

The origin of the sphinx is unknown. It appears in many ancient traditions, with the oldest surviving example coming from Turkey around 9,500 BC. Thanks to the Great Sphinx of Giza, the creature is most commonly associated with Egypt. It seems probable that this is the inspiration for the sphinx recorded in Greek mythology.

The Egyptians generally depicted the sphinx as male and multiple in number. It was considered a guardian. In Greek mythology, on the other hand, there’s just one Sphinx. She’s depicted as having the body of a lioness, the head of a woman, and the wings of an eagle. Her tail had a serpent head at the end of it. Oh, and she was definitely NOT a guardian.

According to Greek mythology, Hera sent the Sphinx from Ethiopia to Greece in order to punish the city of Thebes for King Laius’s kidnapping and raping of a boy. The Sphinx took up residence on a high wall outside Thebes. She watched over the only entrance to the city and any would-be visitor was required to answer the Riddle of the Sphinx in order to gain passage. Those who failed to give the correct answer were strangled and eaten! In the earliest texts, the Riddle of the Sphinx is not revealed. However, later texts give it as such:

“Which creature in the morning goes on four legs, at mid-day on two, and in the evening upon three, and the more legs it has, the weaker it be?”

Do you know the answer to the Riddle of the Sphinx?

Answering the Riddle of the Sphinx?

One day, Oedipus came along and finally solved the Riddle of the Sphinx. The correct answer was “man.”

“Man, who walks on all fours in infancy, walks upright on two legs in the midday of his life, and hobbles about with a staff in old age.” ~ Oedipus

Some accounts state that there was a second Riddle of the Sphinx.

“There are two sisters: one gives birth to the other and she, in turn, gives birth to the first.”

The answer to this Riddle of the Sphinx was “day and night.”

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

After Oedipus solved her riddle, the Sphinx threw herself off the wall and broke into pieces on the rocks below. Alternative versions state that she strangled herself or that she refused to acknowledge the answer and he was forced to kill her. Regardless, Oedipus’s victory is often recognized as a transition of sorts. With the death of the Sphinx came the end of ancient religious practices. In their wake would rise a new force…the ancient Olympian gods.

The Curse of Tutankhamun?

Posted on by

On November 26, 1922, archaeologist Howard Carter breached the tomb of Tutankhamun, an ancient Egyptian pharaoh. Almost immediately, whispers of a curse began spreading throughout the region. And then the deaths began. Was the curse of Tutankhamun real? Or just a myth?

The Curse of King Tut?

Soon after entering the tomb, Carter sent a messenger to his house. The messenger discovered that a cobra had killed Carter’s pet canary. Since the Royal Cobra was seen as a symbol of the ancient Egyptian government, the canary’s death was interpreted by the locals as evidence of a curse.

“The pharaoh’s serpent ate the bird because it led us to the hidden tomb! You must not disturb the tomb!” ~ Servant to Howard Carter

A few months later, on April 5, 1923, Lord Carnarvon died from an infected mosquito bite. Since Carnarvon had provided the financial backing for Carter’s excavation, his death was seen as part of the curse. The media reported extensively on the story and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the creator of Sherlock Holmes, gave an interview in which he stated his opinion that the death might have been caused by “elementals” or “curses.” Hence, the curse of Tutankhamun was born.

A series of strange deaths followed over the next few years. Captain Richard Bethell (Carter’s personal secretary) died under suspicious circumstances while sleeping at a Mayfair Club. Bethell’s father committed suicide by jumping from his seventh floor apartment. Edgar Steele, who handled the artifacts from London’s British Museum, passed away during a minor operation. All in all, a grand total of eleven people connected to the tomb’s discovery and excavation died seemingly unnatural deaths by 1929. By 1935, this number was up to twenty-one.

Was the Curse of Tutankhamun caused by Murder?

So, what caused these deaths? A true curse of Tutankhamun? Coincidence? An ancient plague? Well, in his new book, London’s Curse: Murder, Black Magic and Tutankhamun in the 1920s West End, author Mark Beynon speculates that the various murders were indeed connected…but not by a supernatural force. Instead, he believes that the murders were “ritualistic killings” masterminded by the infamous Aleister Crowley…aka, “the wickedest man in the world.”

Crowley was a well-known occultist, mystic, astrologist, and magician. He was also a prolific writer, leaving behind an impressive collection of diaries, books, and essays. After reviewing these works, along with various inquest reports, Beynon believes we should add another occupation to Crowley’s long resume…murderer.

Beynon believes that Crowley was motivated by revenge. Specifically, Crowley might’ve considered Carter’s excavation “sacrilegious” since he’d used ancient Egypt’s gods and goddesses to help formulate his own religion, known as Thelema. Also, many of the deceased individuals considered to have been “cursed” died in ways that suggested murder. For example, Captain Bethell’s symptoms matched that of one who’d been smothered to death. And the ability of Bethell’s father to climb out onto the window ledge and commit suicide seems questionable, indicating that he might’ve had help.

Beynon speculates that Crowley, who supposedly “murdered his servants in India,” was obsessed with Jack the Ripper and may have used Jack as an inspiration for his own murders of Carter’s excavation team. However, Beynon’s evidence seems pretty skimpy. Crowley’s connections to the various victims is tenuous at best. Also, he was absent from London for at least two of these deaths. Finally, the fact that Howard Carter – the primary man behind the excavation – survived 17 years after opening the tomb is damning. If Crowley really wished to punish Carter’s team, it seems that he would’ve wanted to do the same to Carter himself. Instead, Carter lived until 1939 before finally succumbing to lymphoma at the age of 65.

Was the Curse of Tutankhamun caused by Disease?

So, what caused “The Curse of Tutankhamun?” One possibility is an ancient disease. In 1962, Dr. Ezzeddin Taha announced that many of the archaeologists and museum employees who worked with ancient Egyptian artifacts suffered from exposure to Aspergillus niger, a fungus that causes skins rashes and respiratory problems. He believed that this fungus might’ve been sealed in Egyptian tombs many centuries ago only to rear it’s ugly head when the tombs were reopened. Another possibility is mold spores. Intriguingly, a 1999 study conducted by microbiologist Gotthard Kramer showed that as many as 40 recovered Egyptian mummies were covered with bits of mold spores. Some mold spores, which can survive for long periods of time, are extremely deadly.

“When spores enter the body through the nose, mouth or eye mucous membranes they can lead to organ failure or even death, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems.” ~ Gotthard Kramer

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

Personally, I think ancient fungal spores may have caused some of the deaths associated with the curse, particularly that of Lord Carnarvon. However, I also believe there was a conspiracy afoot. But not the type of conspiracy brought about by a murderous mystic. No, I think we’re dealing with an entirely different type of conspiracy…a media conspiracy.

The reality of the matter is that many of the curse’s so-called victims played only incidental roles in the discovery and opening of the tomb. According to an analysis prepared by Herbert Winlock, the director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, 54 total people were present for the opening of the tomb (1922), the opening of the sarcophagus (1924), and the unveiling of King Tut’s mummy (1925). Out of those 54 people, only 8 had died by 1934 (6 from the opening of the tomb and 2 from the opening of the sarcophagus).

The truth is that much of the hype surrounding the curse was overblown. Many of the so-called victims were only vaguely connected to King Tut’s tomb. In reality, it wasn’t much of a curse at all.

But it sure made one hell of a story.

Queen Hatshepsut: Death by Moisturizer?

Posted on by

Queen Hatshepsut was one of the most successful pharaohs in ancient Egypt and one of the most powerful women of all time. She died in 1458 BC of unknown causes. Now, a new theory proposes to solve this mystery. Did Hatshepsut moisturize herself to death?

The Mysterious Flask of Hatshepsut?

I wrote about Hatshepsut a little over a week ago. That article, Did Ancient Egyptians Conquer the Seas?, discussed her role in an overseas expedition to the mysterious Land of Punt. Now, she’s back in the news for something else…namely her own death.

German scholars recently announced the discovery of creosote and asphalt in a flask that supposedly belonged to Hatshepsut. These are carcinogenic substances and known to cause cancer.

The rest of the flask contained palm and nutmeg oil as well as polyunsaturated fats. Taken together, the contents indicate that the flask might have once held some sort of ancient skin care lotion. The research team believes that Hatsheptsut suffered from a chronic skin disease. By using the lotion as a salve, she exposed herself to the dangerous substances over an extended period of time. This ultimately caused her to contract cancer.

There is some outside evidence to support this new theory. Hatshepsut’s family apparently suffered from genetic skin diseases. Also, assuming that the 2007 identification of her mummy is correct, then Hatshepsut clearly suffered from a skin disease of her own as well as bone cancer.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

Not everyone is convinced. Researchers have yet to find traces of the offending substances in her bone marrow. Skeptics can also point to a number of weak links in the evidence chain. We don’t know for sure that the flask is authentic or that Hatshepsut used it. Also, we can’t be positive that the mummy belongs to her. Finally, even if the mummy does belong to Hatshepsut, the so-called skin disease she appears to have suffered from may be nothing more than residue left over from the mummification process.

Still, the research team has put together an intriguing case. Further tests and analysis are of course required. But at the moment, it seems quite possible that Hatshepsut may have, in effect, moisturized herself to death.

Did Ancient Egyptians Conquer the Seas?

Posted on by

Around 1477 BC, Queen Hatshepsut funded a mysterious overseas expedition to the Land of Punt, or “the Land of God.” For over a century, archaeologists have questioned the ability of Egypt to conduct such an oceanic voyage, with many believing that the Land of Punt was inland or even fictional. Now, new evidence indicates that the ancient Egyptians weren’t just masters of the land…they were masters of the seas as well.

The Mysterious Land of Punt?

The famous expedition is depicted in relief at Deir el-Bahri. It consisted of five ships. Each ship measured about seventy feet long and carried 210 men. After reaching Punt, the expedition returned with plants, animals, incense, ebony, and even people native to the Land of Punt.

Interestingly enough, this is not the first nor the last recorded visit to Punt. Pharaoh Sahure led a similar expedition almost one thousand years earlier. And after Hatshepsut’s expedition, trade flourished between Egypt and Punt for another four hundred years until Egypt’s New Kingdom came to an end. Then trade ceased and Punt became known as a mythical, lost land.

Where was the Land of Punt?

The exact location of the Land of Punt has baffled scholars for decades. Many researchers doubted the ability of ancient Egyptians to master the deep seas. They tended to think that stories of long voyages were false and that Punt was accessible by land or perhaps, a mythical place from the beginning. However, a recent article by Discovery Magazine indicates that the Egyptians “
mastered oceangoing technology and 
launched a series of 
ambitious expeditions 
to far-off lands.”

Since 2003, a team of archaeologists led by Kathryn Bard have been excavating the dried-up ancient Red Sea port of Mersa Gawasis. Their most recent discovery, an ancient sophisticated harbor, provides substantial proof that the Egyptians traveled far beyond the Nile. Over the years, the team has also located supporting evidence in a series of nearby, hand-hewn caves. These caves, which may have once served as ancient boat houses, were found to contain timbers, rigging, limestone anchors, steering oars, cedar planks, and reed mats, amongst other things. The evidence points to the existence of numerous Egyptian ships, powered by rowers and sails, and capable of surviving deepwater excursions.

“These new finds remove all doubt that you reach Punt by sea. The Egyptians must have had considerable seagoing experience.” ~ John Baines, Egyptologist

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

The ancient Egyptians were clearly incredible builders on land. And now, thanks to these new discoveries, it appears that their expertise extended to the sea as well. While the exact location of the Land of Punt remains a mystery, the evidence continues to mount that the Egyptians traveled throughout the Red Sea and perhaps into the Arabian Sea. Someday soon, we might even learn that ancient Egyptian vessels traveled far out into the Indian Ocean, voyaging to faraway points such as India…and perhaps, even beyond.

How was the Great Pyramid built?

Posted on by

The Great Pyramid at Giza is one of the most spectacular monuments of the ancient world. It measures over 450 feet tall and over 750 feet on each side. Many mysteries surround the giant structure but one in particular stands above the rest. How in the world did the ancient Egyptians manage to build it?

How did Ancient Egyptians build the Great Pyramid?

The problem is not an easy one. As one scholar put it:

“The logistics of construction at the Giza site are staggering when you think that the ancient Egyptians had no pulleys, no wheels, and no iron tools. Yet, the dimensions of the pyramid are extremely accurate and the site was leveled within a fraction of an inch over the entire 13.1-acre base. This is comparable to the accuracy possible with modern construction methods and laser leveling. That’s astounding. With their ‘rudimentary tools,’ the pyramid builders of ancient Egypt were about as accurate as we are today with 20th century technology.” ~ Dr. Craig Smith

Ancient texts provide us with some clues. Herodotus wrote that wooden machines or levers were utilized to build the Great Pyramid while Diodorus Siculus theorized that ramps were used. In more modern times, scholars have added a number of theories to the debate. However, none of these seem to fit the facts.

  • Single Ramp: A single ramp would need to rise and lengthen as the Great Pyramid grew taller. In order to maintain a manageable slope for workers hauling the massive blocks, it would eventually be over a mile long. There is no room for such a ramp in the area nor evidence that one ever existed.
  • Spiral Ramp: A ramp that spiraled upwards around the Great Pyramid’s exterior would create an engineering problem. As the pyramid rose, the ramp would need to edge inwards, completely covering the lower half of the structure. This would make it impossible for surveyors to build the pyramid with much accuracy.
  • Herodotus’s Machines: An army of wooden crane-like machines required wood that the Egyptians didn’t possess. Also, cranes would be needed on all steps of the Great Pyramid yet many of the steps are too thin to support such machines.
  • Concrete Blocks: Even if the ancient Egyptians used limestone concrete for some of the blocks, they couldn’t have used it for all of them. For instance, the giant multi-ton stones above the King’s Chamber were definitely carved and hauled.

Where is the Ramp used to build the Great Pyramid?

In 2007, a French architect by the name of Jean-Pierre Houdin used 3-D software to propose a new type of ramp. If he’s right, this ramp should still exist…inside the Great Pyramid itself!

His theory is that a single external ramp was used to build the bottom third of the pyramid. At the same time, a second spiraling ramp was constructed inside the structure. After the external ramp had served its purpose, it was broken down into blocks and hauled up the internal ramp in order to build the top two-thirds of the pyramid. Within the Great Pyramid, the ramp’s turning points were left open temporarily so that a wooden crane could lift and rotate each block, allowing them to be hauled up to the next turning point.

Houdin’s theory is admittedly complicated. Yet, it’s backed by intriguing evidence. First, there is a notch in the pyramid that matches up with one of his predicted turning points. In 1986, a French archaeologist spotted a desert fox enter the Great Pyramid near this notch. While the fox could’ve climbed the massive structure, its also possible that it entered an undiscovered crevice at the bottom, climbed the internal ramp, and then exited near the notch. And second, that same French expedition used microgravity to search for hidden chambers. While they found nothing substantial, their work revealed something inside the pyramid that looked like a spiraling ramp.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

Houdin wishes to test his theory by using special infrared cameras to measure the pyramid’s reaction to heat. However, he first needs permission from Egyptian authorities, something that has eluded his grasp for several years. Along with the Great Pyramid’s secret shafts, its construction remains one of the greatest mysteries of the ancient world. With any luck, both secrets will soon be solved.

Deciphering Ancient Texts?

Posted on by

In 1896, two undergraduate students unearthed an underground cache of over 200,000 pieces of papyri. The collection includes letters and other documents dating from 500 BC to 1000 AD. Despite over one hundred years of work, researchers have only managed to transcribe two percent of the ancient texts. They need help to transcribe the rest…YOUR help.

A Treasure Trove of Ancient Texts?

In 1896, Bernard Grenfell and Arthur Hunt discovered an ancient dump near the Egyptian city of Oxyrhynchus. With the help of locals, they proceeded to uncover a treasure trove of papyri, digging as far down as twenty-five feet in some cases. The papers, which dated back to Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt, included letters, documents, receipts, loans, work contracts, gossip, and other things. After a decade, Grenfell and Hunt brought the recovered papers back to Oxford University where they have remained ever since.

For over a century, researchers have worked to transcribe the documents. In the process, they have made numerous important discoveries, including a lost play by Euripides entitled Melanippe the Wise, lost works from the poet Sappho, and lost letters from the philosopher Epicurus. Amazingly, they also found tiny fragments of a “lost gospel” which appears to describe Jesus exorcising demons.

However, the process has been slow and many of the ancient texts remain unstudied to this day. In fact, Oxford University researchers estimate that only two percent of the documents have been successfully transcribed. Now, they are seeking the help of outsiders to help decode the rest of the works.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

You don’t need to know Greek in order to help. You merely need to visit Ancient Lives and use pattern recognition tools to match letters to symbols. The site will then store your translation and wait for others to view the ancient text. By having multiple people study each fragment, scholars hope to weed out mistakes and discrepancies.

If you have time, please stop by Ancient Lives and lend a hand. Who knows? You might find yourself reading a lost play or a lost letter. You might even find something really important…something that changes history as we know it.