Tag Archives: Ancient Greece

The Lost Obelisk of Babylonia

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An ancient Greek historian named Diodorus Siculus once wrote about a massive obelisk in Babylonia. He called it one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. What happened to it?

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: The Lost Obelisk of Babylonia?

From 60 to 30 BC, Diodorus wrote his Bibliotheca historica, a gigantic forty-book collection of history compiled from multiple sources. Unfortunately, many of the volumes have been lost to time. However, Books 1-5 as well as Books 11-20 still exist. It is in Book 2 that he mentions the seven wonders of the ancient world. The Lost Obelisk is one of those wonders.

“Semiramis quarried out a stone from the mountains of Armenia which was one hundred and thirty feet long and twenty-five feet wide and thick; and this she hauled by means of many multitudes of yokes of mules and oxen to the river and there loaded it on a raft, on which she brought it down the stream to Babylonia; she then set it up beside the most famous street, an astonishing sight to all who passed by. And this stone is called by some an obelisk from its shape, and they number it among the seven wonders of the world.” ~ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, Book 2, Chapter II, Verses 4-5

Semiramis is the Greek name for Shammuramat, who served as regent of Assyria from 810 to 806 BC. However, for the ancient Greeks, Semiramis was shrouded in mythology. According to Diodorus, she was the daughter of the fish goddess Derketo and a mortal man. He describes her as being married to King Ninus, who is notably absent from the Assyrian King List.

So, any stories about Semiramis are obviously in question. However, that doesn’t mean the Lost Obelisk wasn’t real or that it wasn’t once considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. For example, Diodorus attributes the very real Behistun Inscription of Darius to Semiramis. So, it’s entirely possible Diodorus or one of his sources saw the Lost Obelisk and misattributed it.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

Interestingly enough, the Lost Obelisk makes an appearance in The David Icke Guide to the Global Conspiracy (and how to end it). Here’s the relevant passage:

“The ancient Greek historian, Diodorus, reports that Queen Semiramis erected a 130-foot obelisk in Babylon and it was associated with Sun worship and represented the phallus of the Sun god Baal/Nimrod. Some Masonic researchers say that the word ‘obelisk’ literally means ‘Baal’s shaft’ or ‘Baal’s organ of reproduction’.” ~ David Icke, The David Icke Guide to the Global Conspiracy (and how to end it)

Icke goes on to say, “It is for this reason that the obelisk also represents the Reptilian hybrid bloodlines which are, let’s be honest, a bunch of dicks.” For those of you are unfamiliar with him, David Icke believes humanity is controlled by a secret group of reptilian humanoids which he calls the Babylonian Brotherhood. So, yeah…

Sadly, no physical evidence of the Lost Obelisk remains today. And as far as I know, its not specifically mentioned in any other ancient text from that time period. Hopefully, it’s still out there somewhere, waiting for the intrepid archaeologist to dig it up.

The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World?

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By the 4th century BC, the ancient Greeks had conquered much of Egypt, Persia, and Babylonia. This opened the door for ancient travel writers to record the most amazing structures in the so-called “known world.” What were the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World?

What were the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World?

Multiple versions of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World exist. However, the canonical version is generally listed as follows:

  1. Great Pyramid of Giza
  2. Hanging Gardens of Babylon
  3. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
  4. Statue of Zeus at Olympia
  5. Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
  6. Colossus of Rhodes
  7. Lighthouse of Alexandria

Considering the nationality of the travel writers, it should be no surprise that Greek architecture dominates this list. Only the Great Pyramid of Giza and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon came from civilizations outside of Greece. Interestingly enough, those Seven Wonders only existed at the same time for about 55 years. That’s the lifespan of the magnificent, but extremely short-lived Colossus of Rhodes.

However, the canonical list isn’t the original one. For example, check out this poem written by Antipater of Sidon in 140 BC.

“I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots, and the statue of Zeus by the Alpheus, and the hanging gardens, and the colossus of the Sun, and the huge labour of the high pyramids, and the vast tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the house of Artemis that mounted to the clouds, those other marvels lost their brilliancy, and I said, ‘Lo, apart from Olympus, the Sun never looked on aught so grand.'” ~ Antipater of Sidon, Greek Anthology (IX.58)

Interesting huh? His list of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World has the Walls of Babylon (which includes the famous Ishtar Gate) instead of the Lighthouse of Alexandria. And older lists include even more variations. Diodorus mentions a mysterious obelisk in Babylon as “among the seven wonders of the world.” The Palace of Cyrus has also been mentioned in this regard. Supposedly, the earliest Seven Wonders lists didn’t include any non-Greek monuments. Unfortunately, none of those lists exist today.

Sadly, other than the Great Pyramid of Giza, all the ancient wonders have succumbed to the ravages of time. In addition, numerous questions surround the inclusion of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Indeed, many modern scholars question its very existence.

Updating the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World?

Just as the original list of wonders changed over the years, many modern groups have created their own lists. Perhaps the most notable one comes from the New7Wonders Foundation:

  1. Great Wall of China
  2. Petra
  3. Christ the Redeemer
  4. Machu Picchu
  5. Chichen Itza
  6. Colosseum
  7. Taj Majal
  8. Great Pyramid of Giza (Honorary Member)

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

But should we take this list seriously? After all, it excludes the Moai of Easter Island, the Statue of Liberty, and Angor Wat. Furthermore, this was a popularity poll conducted in part on the Internet. Since there were no steps taken to prevent multiple votes, there was no way to stop ballot box stuffing.

Regardless, there are literally hundreds of possible candidates for a modern Seven Wonders of the World. In fact, there are so many candidates, its impossible for everyone to agree on one list. And as far as I’m concerned, that’s a good thing. It indicates the world we’ve created is literally full of Wonders.

Did Ancient Greeks Discover America?

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In 1492, Christoper Columbus sailed “the ocean blue.” But did he really lead the first (or even the second) expedition to reach North America? Or did Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact exist?

Pre-Columbian Mystery: Did Ancient Greeks Discover America?

One of our favorite subjects here at Guerrilla Explorer is pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. Over the years, scholars have speculated that everyone from the ancient Romans to the Polynesians to the Japanese sailed to America long before Christopher Columbus. There is also evidence of travel going the other way as well, most notably Topa Inca Yupanqui’s legendary expedition in 1480.

We now know the Vikings reached Greenland in the late 900s. And it seems fairly likely that Polynesians traveled to South America between 300 and 1200. However, theories of other trans-oceanic expeditions have yet to be proven. Now, researchers have a new theory to study, thanks Dr. Minas Tsikritsis. Based on his analysis of Plutarch’s text, “On the Apparent Face in the Orb of the Moon,” Dr. Tsikritsis believes the Greeks visited the new world…all the way back in 86!

Here’s more on the possibility of pre-Columbian contact from Canada Greek Reporter:

Dr. Tsikritsis states that, “even before the time of Christopher Columbus, there was a communication which began during the Minoan era and continued until the Hellenistic times. The purpose of these travels during the Bronze Age was related to trade and the transportation of pure copper from Lake Superior of Canada.”

According to his findings it seems that after the first Minoan merchants, the Mycenaeans continued the journey, and, as reported by Plutarch, they sent Hercules to revitalize the presence of the Greek element, which had been diminished by the continuous miscegenation with the locals. Later, during the Iron Age, the interest in the region declined and until the Hellenistic time, it remained only as a conventional ceremonial tradition. So every thirty years some ships were sent to the areas that followed the worship of Cronus in order to renew the priest personnel.

The ancient text by Plutarch states that the dialogue coordinator, Lambrias, asks Sylla the Carthagean to narrate once more a story that he had heard from the servants of the temple of Cronus in Carthage. The story was originally told by a foreigner who was visiting the temple and came from the great continent.

According to Tsikritsis, who analyzed the data with the aid of a special computer program, “the information that is mentioned in the text confirms the description of a journey in 86 AD from Canada to Carthage.”

(See Canada Greek Reporter for more on pre-Columbian contact)

The Wave of Poseidon?

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In 479 BC, the mighty Persian army marched toward the tiny Greek colony of Potidaea. The northern Aegean Sea had mysteriously retreated, making conditions ideal for a siege. Then disaster struck. The sea surged and hundreds of Persian soldiers died. Potidaea was saved, all thanks to a strange event that has come to be known as “The Wave of Poseidon.”

The Wave of Poseidon?

“When they had made their way over two-fifths of it, however, and three yet remained to cross before they could be in Pallene, there came a great flood-tide, higher, as the people of the place say, than any one of the many that had been before. Some of them who did not know how to swim were drowned, and those who knew were slain by the Potidaeans, who came among them in boats.” ~ Herodotus, The Histories

Herodotus, like many other ancient Greek historians, considered the wave to be of divine providence. It was the work of Poseidon, the god of the sea. In his infinite wisdom, Poseidon had decided to thrash the Persians and thus, save the villagers of Potidaea.

“The Potidaeans say that the cause of the high sea and flood and the Persian disaster lay in the fact that those same Persians who now perished in the sea had profaned the temple and the image of Poseidon which was in the suburb of the city. I think that in saying that this was the cause they are correct. Those who escaped alive were led away by Artabazus to Mardonius in Thessaly. This is how the men who had been the king’s escort fared.” ~ Herodotus, The Histories

Over time, The Wave of Poseidon became a thing of myth. And indeed, that is how modern historians initially viewed it. But over the last few decades, scholars started to study the event in depth, attempting to find a real life explanation for it. They noticed that Herodotus’s account, which was written ~50 years after the actual event, bore some resemblance to a tsunami. Now, new evidence has emerged to bolster this interpretation.

“We wanted to see if these historical accounts are correct and then try to get an assessment of the coastal areas — are they safe or are they not safe?” ~ Klaus Reicherter, Aachen University

A research team led by Klaus Reicherter recently realized the area’s geological conditions were ripe for a tsunami. The seafloor is shaped like a bathtub. Underwater earthquakes and landslides occur from time to time. Models show a regional tsunami could get as high as 16 feet.

Reicherter also discovered layers of sediment that appear to have been carried inland by massive waves. In addition, they excavated numerous shells in a nearby city, far away from land. A dating analysis indicates the shells landed in the soil around 500 BC, give or take 20-30 years.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

Many historians view historical accounts of magic and divine intervention as pure myth. But we here at Guerrilla Explorer tend to think many of these strange stories have real-life roots. It appears we can now add The Wave of Poseidon to this category. Interestingly enough, if the tsunami had happened a few decades later, it might have never achieved its mythical status. About fifty years later, in 426 BC, the Greek historian Thucydides became the first person in recorded history to speculate that earthquakes, and not some ancient god, were behind massive waves.

“The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in the earthquake. At the point where its shock has been the most violent the sea is driven back, and suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident could happen.” ~ Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War

Ancient Minoans: Death by Volcano?

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Around 1450 BC, the famed Minoan civilization suddenly collapsed. The disappearance of these people remains one of history’s greatest mysteries. So, what happened to them?

The Strange Collapse of the Minoan Civilization?

One particularly intriguing theory about the collapse has come to light over the last few decades. About fifty years beforehand, a volcano erupted on the island of Thera. Sixty miles away, the Minoan civilization on Crete was struck by a sudden, ruinous tsunami. A volcanic winter likely followed, leading to years of crop failures. Starving and angry, the Minoan people might’ve turned on their leaders, leading to political turmoil. Weakened and divided, the Minoans would’ve proved an easy target for the Mycenaeans.

Here’s more on the Minoan Collapse from the BBC:

Three and a half thousand years ago, the tiny Aegean island of Thera was devastated by one of the worst natural disasters since the Ice Age – a huge volcanic eruption.

This cataclysm happened 100km from the island of Crete, the home of the thriving Minoan civilisation. Fifty years after the eruption, that civilisation was in ruins. Did the volcano deliver a death blow to the Minoans? It’s a whodunnit that has haunted historians and scientists for decades…

Early 20th-century archaeologists knew of the devastating volcano and some concluded it must have snuffed out the Minoan civilisation almost instantly. But was it really as simple as that?

(See the rest on the Minoan Collapse at the BBC)

Who was the First Superhero?

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In 1938, Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster unleashed Superman upon the world. With a secret identity, strange powers, and a costume, Superman is perhaps the quintessential superhero. But was he the first of his kind?

Who was the First Superhero?

Superman was certainly not the first fictional character to exhibit powers. Long ago, ancient civilizations told stories about gods and goddesses who exhibited “superpowers.” For example, Zeus from Greek mythology liked to toss the occasional thunderbolt at his enemies. He also resided in a palace on Mount Olympus with the other deities, in what could rightly be called a predecessor to the Justice League’s Watchtower or the Avengers Mansion.

Superman wasn’t even the first comic book character to have superpowers. Popeye, for example, was showing spinach-derived super-strength as early as 1932. Going back in time to the pulp magazines, Doc Savage and the Shadow displayed some of the traits that we currently identify with superheroes.

Superman also wasn’t the first hero to don a secret identity. That honor may belong to Robin Hood or the masked adventurer The Scarlet Pimpernel. As for costume, well, Superman wasn’t the first in that department either. So-called penny dreadfuls, dime novels, and radio programs featured costumed heros such as Zorro and Spring Heeled Jack long before Superman. And one could easily argue that this tradition extends far back in time. Hercules, for example, wore the hide of a lion. Heck, Superman wasn’t even the first comic book hero to wear a costume. That honor, according to the Overstreet Comic Book Price Guide, belongs to the Clock.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

Although he wasn’t the first fictional character to have super powers, a secret identity, or a costume, one could make the case that Superman was the first one to combine all of these elements. So, maybe Superman was the first Superhero.

Or maybe not.

Still, Superman’s stories launched the superhero genre and popularized the comic book as a form of storytelling. He may or may not have been the first superhero. But he might just be the most important one of our time, if not of all time.

What was Greek Fire?

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In 672 AD, Theophanes the Confessor reported that “Kallinikos, an artificer from Heliopolis…had devised a sea fire which ignited the Arab ships and burned them with all hands. Thus it was that the Romans returned with victory and discovered the sea fire.” What was this strange Greek fire?

What was Greek Fire?

Greek fire was an ancient incendiary weapon of mass destruction. In the hands of the Byzantine Empire, it was a terrifying force. Greek fire differed from other similar weapons in history in four curious ways. First, it burned continuously, even underwater. Second, it consisted of a liquid substance. Third, it was propelled through the air via pressurized siphons (see picture above). And fourth, when used in battle, it was accompanied by “thunder” and “smoke.”

The exact formula for this strange weapon was a closely guarded secret and has since been lost to time. One 11th century scholar, George Kedrenos, speculated that the family of Kallinikos kept the formula a secret for centuries, even up until his time. Regardless, modern researchers speculate that possible ingredients might’ve included sulphur, naphtha, petroleum, quicklime, or phosphorous. In his article, Greek Fire: The Best Kept Secret of the Ancient World, 1LT Richard Groller makes an interesting case for petroleum.

“It is very probable then, that the basis of the earliest Greek fire was liquid rectified petroleum or volatile petrol. Petrol itself would not be very effective in flame-projectors since the projected jet dissipates too rapidly. But thickened almost to a jelly by dissolving in it resinous substances and/or sulphur the particular admixture, coupled with the mechanical means of projecting it, together constituted a great achievement of chemical engineering.” ~ 1LT Richard Groller

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

Like all weapons, Greek fire had its limitations. It exhibited limited range and enemy vessels soon learned to keep their distance from it. Also, heavy winds and other conditions limited its effectiveness while causing serious safety problems for its users. Still, for a short period of time, Greek fire was the most terrifying and devastating weapon known to man.

Where is the Colossus of Rhodes?

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The Colossus of Rhodes was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.  At over 100 feet tall, it stood far higher than any other statue of its time.  Mysteriously, this behemoth disappeared over a thousand years ago and has been missing ever since.  So, what happened to it?

The Colossus of Rhodes?

Rhodes was a powerhouse of the ancient world.  After the death of Alexander the Great, it joined forces with Ptolemaic Egypt to control trade in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea.  Unhappy with the situation, King Antigonus I Monophthalmus of Cyprus ordered his son to invade Rhodes.  The invasion was turned back.  A subsequent siege also failed and the Cyprus army was forced to flee, leaving behind most of its equipment.  The leaders of Rhodes decided to celebrate the victory by constructing a mammoth statue dedicated to Helios, the god of the sun.

In 292 BC, the sculptor Chares began work on the statue.  He used iron tie bars as framework and giant plates of brass as skin.  The Colossus of Rhodes was completed in 280 BC (Chares is believed to have committed suicide shortly before it was finished).  It stood close to one hundred and ten feet tall and with the addition of at least one fifty foot high marble pedestal, it reached over one hundred and sixty feet into the sky.

There is some confusion regarding the location of the statue.  Medieval historians believed that it straddled the harbor with each foot resting on a giant pillar.  However, modern archaeologists and engineers consider this unrealistic, since it would’ve been structurally unsound and forced a long-term closure of the port.  Instead, they believe that the Colossus of Rhodes rested on a single pedestal or on a hill overlooking the area.

The Collapse of the Colossus of Rhodes?

In 226 BC, a giant earthquake struck Rhodes, wreaking havoc on the city.  And after just 56 years, the mighty Colossus of Rhodes broke at the knees.  Afterwards, the ruins lay on the ground for over 800 years, becoming a tourist attraction in their own right.  In 654 AD, a Muslim leader named Muawiyah I conquered Rhodes.  Supposedly, he sold the ruins to a Jewish merchant who broke them down and transported them back to his home via camel.  However, this may be nothing more than a metaphor.

And a great number of men hauled on strong ropes which were tied round the brass Colossus which was in the city and pulled it down. And they weighed from it three thousand loads of Corinthian brass, and they sold it to a certain Jew from Emesa – Barhebraeus, 13th Century

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

So where is the Colossus of Rhodes today? If we are to believe the stories, then the Colossus is gone, melted down and repurposed.  However, in 2008, German archaeologist Ursula Vedder proposed an alternative explanation.  She suggested that the Colossus of Rhodes had originally rested at the top of the Acropolis of Rhodes which sits on a hill overlooking the port.  There is a large rock base in the area, situated between a recently discovered stadium and racetrack.  If Vedder is correct, then the mystery of the lost Colossus may eventually be solved.  For all we know, the giant statue might be lying near these other ruins, buried deep in the sand, waiting for a team of explorers to unearth it.

Secrets of the Oracle at Delphi?

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For over 1,000 years, the Oracle at Delphi was the most powerful person in the ancient world. Visitors from all walks of life traveled many miles to seek her prophecies on politics, economics, and religion amongst other things. Was the Oracle nothing more than an ancient sham that managed to fool some of history’s finest minds? Or maybe, just maybe, was there something real behind her mysterious prophecies?

What was the Oracle at Delphi?

The true history of the Oracle at Delphi is buried under layers of myth. Supposedly, the Temple at which the Oracle resided was created by the earth-goddess Gaia and subsequently handed over to Themis and then Phoebe. Poseidon later occupied the space, followed by Apollo. Peeling back the mythology, we have reason to believe that the Delphic Oracle was firmly established on Mount Parnassus sometime around 800 BC.

At the height of its fame, three separate Pythias, or priestesses, took turns serving as the Oracle. They made prophecies from inside a small underground chamber located within the Temple of Apollo. The exact process for consulting the Oracle is unknown. However, we do know that it was available to anyone, be it king or ordinary citizen (although it’s believed that wealthy individuals paid great sums to cut the line).

Prophecies of the Oracle at Delphi?

The Oracle answered questions while sitting on a three-legged stool within the interior chamber. Surviving accounts indicate that she would enter a trance-like state, complete with occasional writhing and foaming at the mouth. Then, she would reveal her prophecies, often in a strange voice. Some historians believe that she spoke gibberish which was then translated into statements by the priests who managed the Temple. Others think that she spoke normally and that the priests merely recorded her words. Regardless, many of the Oracle’s prophecies seemed to come true, albeit with some interpretation. Two of the many famous prophecies from the Oracle at Delphi include:

  • 403 BC: “Also the dragon (serpent), earthborn, in craftiness coming behind thee.” – This warning was given to the Spartan General, Lysander. Eight years later, he was killed from behind by Neachorus, who carried a shield adorned with a serpent.
  • 67 AD: “Your presence here outrages the god you seek. Go back, matricide! The number 73 marks the hour of your downfall!” This was related to Emperor Nero, who had killed his mother eight years earlier. Within a year, his reign ended after a revolt led by Galba…who was 73 years old at the time.

The Strange Vapor of the Oracle at Delphi?

So, where did this prophetic power come from? Some clues can be found in ancient texts. According to Plutarch, a one-time priest at the Temple of Apollo, the Oracle’s chamber was often filled with a sweet-smelling vapor.

For the room where those do wait who come for answers from the oracle is sometimes — though not often and at certain stated times, but as it were by chance — filled with such a fragrant odor and scent, that no perfumes in the world can exceed it, and this arises, as it were, out of a spring, from the sanctuary of the temple.” ~ Plutarch, Moralia, Volume 4

However, the initial excavation of the site in 1892 did not reveal a stream or anything else capable of producing vapor. And for many decades, historians believed that Plutarch was simply incorrect. That all changed in 1996 when archaeologist John Hale launched a ground-breaking expedition to investigate the Oracle at Delphi. With the help of a geologist, forensic chemist, and a toxicologist, he re-examined the landscape and arrived at some startling conclusions.

It turns out that the ancient city of Delphi was built on top of limestone, twenty percent of which was bituminous. Two subterranean faults intersected directly beneath the Temple. Hale’s team proposed that these faults, which lie in one of the most geologically active places on earth, shifted periodically in the past. The resulting friction heated petrochemicals within the limestone. They vaporized and then rose to the air through small fissures in the rock. This vapor seeped into the Oracle’s small chamber, causing general intoxication.

The team also discovered a natural spring uphill from the Temple. It contained ethylene, which is a sweet-smelling gas. At low levels, it can induce a trance-like state. At higher levels, it can cause convulsions or even unconsciousness. In other words, gases emitted from the ground could’ve caused the Oracle to experience an altered state, which to the ancients, might’ve seemed like a divine connection with Apollo.

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

The work done by John Hale and his team of experts is nothing short of astounding. From where I stand, they appear to have solved many of the mysteries associated with the Oracle. Incidentally, I wish we saw more of this sort of multidisciplinary approach to archaeology. I can’t help but think that it would provide a far richer understanding of excavation sites.

As with all things, the Oracle at Delphi eventually declined in importance. Some attribute this to a lack of earthquakes over a significant period of time, which caused the vapor to cease. Regardless, for several centuries the women who donned the Oracle mantle wielded an immense amount of power. Their vapor-fueled prophecies guided the actions of the mighty and the meek alike. One can easily make the case that the Oracles at Delphi were some of the most influential people of their era, if not of all time.

Was Alexander the Great Poisoned?

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In June 323 BC, Alexander the Great died in Babylon after a two-week battle against an unknown ailment. Since then, historians have blamed his mysterious death on any number of things…excessive drinking, malaria, and typhoid fever to name just a few. However, new research points to something far more sinister…poison.

The Mysterious Death of Alexander the Great?

Alexander the Great was a king of Macedon. Considered a mighty warrior, he built one of the largest empires in history. In late May 323 BC, he grew ill after a night and a day drinking with Medius of Larissa at the Babylonian palace of Nebuchadnezzar II (located in modern-day Iraq). He took to bed for the next two weeks, complaining of a high fever, liver pain, and joint pain. After falling into a coma, he never awakened. Alexander the Great died on either June 11 or June 12, at the young age of thirty-two.

Rumors of an assassination soon began and his close friends suspected a poison procured from the legendary River Styx. Supposedly, the waters of the River were so corrosive that they dissolved any drinking vessel, short of one made from a horse’s hoof. Intriguingly, while their contemporaries doubted the poison rumors, they never doubted the existence of the River Styx. Regardless, the problem with the poison theory has always been the fact that Alexander suffered for about twelve days before dying. A long-acting poison of that nature seems doubtful in those ancient times.

Was Alexander the Great Poisoned?

In August 2010, Adrienne Mayor and Antoinette Hayes, both from Stanford University, proposed a new theory that breathed life into the possibility of an assassination. Similar to the ancient rumors, they speculate that Alexander might have died from ingesting a vial of water from the River Styx.

While the River Styx is popularly known as the mythological gateway to the underworld, Mayor and Hayes believe that it is based on a real-life river, namely the Mavroneri Stream, or Black Water. The Mavroneri has a strange history and the local people were once known to avoid it, claiming that its waters caused damage to metal and clay vessels.

Mayor and Hayes further speculate that the river once held a highly lethal bacterium known as calicheamicin. Calicheamicin, which was only discovered by modern science in the last few decades, grows on limestone deposits, some of which are found in the Mavroneri. While scientists have not yet looked for calicheamicin in the Mavroneri, there may be an expedition to do so as soon as October 2011. However, we do know that drinking water containing the bacteria would result in “an agonizing death over several days, a course of events compatable with those described in the ancient sources recounting the death of Alexander.”

Guerrilla Explorer’s Analysis

The true cause of Alexander’s death may never be known. However, Mayor and Hayes have gotten closer to unraveling it than anyone else in recent memory. If evidence of calicheamicin is discovered in the Mavroneri, it will provide additional support to the assassination theory. But the mystery won’t end there. If Mayor and Hayes are correct, than we have a whole new set of questions to consider such as: Who killed Alexander the Great?

And why?